Scriptural Roots: A Brief History of the Bible

SCRIPTURAL ROOTS: A Brief History of the Biblical Canon

© 2009, Brad Noel

Date	Event
c. BC 1500-50	The books that now make up the "Old Testament" are composed.
c. BC 250-50	Jews in living in Alexandria (Egypt) translate the Jewish Scriptures into Greek, which was the lingua franca of the Mediterranean at the time. This translation of the Old Testament, known as the Septuagint, is widely used in Jewish communities throughout the Roman world until c. 100 AD. At this point, there is not yet a notion of a strict "canon," or official list, of books in the Jewish Bible.
c. AD 29	Jesus is crucified, rises from the tomb and ascends into heaven. Christians continue to meet for prayers and to celebrate the earliest form of the Mass - a format with a liturgy of Scripture (following the Jewish synagogue's lectionary custom with its set readings for specific days) followed by a celebration of the Eucharist. In these early days, the readings for these liturgies come from the only "scriptures" the Christians know - the Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint. Almost all New Testament references to "scripture" refer not to the entire Bible that we now possess, but to the Jewish Scriptures, our Old Testament.
c. 35	Saul, a pharisee, witnesses the stoning of the deacon Stephen, the first recorded Christian martyrdom.
c. 36	Jesus appears to Saul near Damascus, converting him to the faith. Saul, now going by the Greek form of his name, Paul, would go on to compose the majority of the letters that make up the New Testament.
c. 50 - 100	The Gospels, letters and the Apocalypse (i.e. Revelation) that would eventually be canonized as the "New Testament" are written in these years. The first to be composed were likely Paul's two letters to the Thessalonians (c. 50), and the last were likely John's three letters (c. 90-100). Mark's was probably the first gospel to be written (c. 67) and John's was the last (c. 90). Evidence suggests that all of these books were originally composed in Greek, though there is belief among some biblical experts that the earliest version of Matthew may have been penned in Aramaic, the language of Jesus. The four gospels were written for different local church centers and can be identified stylistically with certain regions: Mark with Rome, Matthew with Antioch and greater Syria, Luke with the churches Paul founded in present-day Greece and John with Ephesus and the churches of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). By this time, the local churches have begun reading these gospels and letters alongside the Old Testament readings during the first part of the Mass.
c. 80 - 200	In response to the growing popularity and influence of the Church, Jewish religious leaders begin to cultivate ideas and impose restrictions that are designed to preserve Judaism and Hebrew culture. During this period, the Septuagint version (i.e. Greek translation) of the Jewish scriptures which, up until this time had been widely used in synagogue worship throughout the Mediterranean world, came to be rejected by Jewish leaders. Instead, synagogue readings began to be permitted only in Hebrew. Prayers cursing the minim (Hebrew for "pagans," probably referring to Christians) also begin to appear in synagogue liturgies during this time.
c. 90 - 95	Evidence from some of the writings of the Church Fathers (the generations of Church leaders that immediately followed the apostles) suggests that by this time, Paul's letters had been collected together into a single volume that circulated among many early churches. Also by this time, the four gospels began to be circulated to other church communities outside of their individual regions of origin.
c. 140 - 144	A layman named Marcion founds a popular heretical sect in Rome that disallows the reading of the Old Testament for the belief that the god of the Jews is evil and is a different being from the New Testament god. His followers, which become known as Marcionites, allow liturgical use of only one Gospel (Luke, edited of any Jewish references) and ten of Paul's letters. Marcion’s actions force leaders of the Catholic Church to discuss, for the first time, the establishment of a canon of Scripture (i.e. an official list of books that may be read during the Church's liturgy).
c. 170	The so-called "Muratorian canon" is composed at Rome. It lists the approved books to be read in the local churches within Rome. Interestingly, while the Letters of James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John and Hebrews are not found on this list, the book known as the Apocalypse of Peter is listed.
173	A Christian convert named Tatian leaves the Church and joins a Gnostic sect in present-day Syria. He then composes a one-volume synthesis of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke called the Diatessaron. This text becomes so popular, even among Catholics, that it is practically the only Gospel used in the region of Syria during the third and fourth centuries.
c. 180	New Testament books are now being translated into Latin and Syriac around this time, as both languages grow in use in the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire, respectively. By now, twenty-one books of our present New Testament enjoy status as indisputably legitimate throughout the Western (Catholic) Church, but the Syriac translations of the Scriptures (collectively known as the Peshitta) does not include certain disputed letters (namely 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude) nor the Revelation of John. Also, some local churches also continue to read from other early Christian writings during their liturgies. The Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve continues to be read in church liturgies in Syria, the Epistle of Barnabas is still being read in Alexandria's liturgies, the Shepherd of Hermas in Carthage, and the Apocalypse of Peter in Rome. In time, these documents were seen to be useful and edyfying, but they failed to gain eventual acceptance as Sacred Scripture in the universal Church.
c. 200	Spurred by the rise of heresies such as Marcionism and Gnosticism, local churches begin to make official declarations about the documents to be read during their liturgies. This newly unified body of Christian literature is only gradually recognized as authoritative within the Church. In spite of the practice of publicly reading from these "New Testament" books during the Church's liturgies, there is still, at this point, no clear evidence that they were considered to be equal in authority to the scriptures of the Old Covenant (i.e. the Old Testament). Even though the term "Scripture" was applied to Paul's letters (2 Peter 3:16) and, later, to the Gospels (by II Clement and the writings of Justin Martyr), it is not until the end of the second century that the expressions "inspired writings," "Scriptures of the Lord," and "the Scriptures" are used indiscriminately of both the Old Testament and the core of the New Testament. At this time the designation "the New Testament" made its appearance and ultimately displaced all earlier names for the collection of the new books. From this point on, it becomes not a question of the nature of the Church's canon, but only of its extent.
367	Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (Egypt), in his Easter letter of 367, lists the books which he (and his church) recognized as Scripture. This is the earliest extant list of the books of the New Testament in exatly the same number and order as we have them today.
382	Pope Damasus I approves the list of Scriptural canon published by Athansius in 367.
393	The Council of Hippo, a regional church council in North Africa, led by Augustine of Hippo, reaffirms the decree of Pope Damasus and, again, lists a canon of New Testament writings which mirrors our own.
397	Third Council of Carthage, a council of all North African churches, publishes a listing of the "divine Scriptures" which is the same as the present Catholic canon of Old and New Testaments - a total of 74 books. This canon was sent to Rome for the pope's approval. Pope Boniface I (d. 422) ratifies the council's decision and declares the matter closed for the Western Church.
c. 400	Jerome, working on a new translation of the Old and New Testaments into Latin, argues that, since the Jews only recognize 39 books in their Old Testament, the Church should only include these books in their canon as well. He wants to exclude seven books (Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach [or "Ecclesiasticus"], and Baruch) from his Latin translation of the Bible. Pope Damscus appeals to Christian Tradition for the retention of all 46 books in the Old Testament. Jerome includes the disputed books, referring to them as "apocrypha," or "hidden" books.
419	The Fourth Council of Carthage, yet another regional council of the African church, again reiterates the list of "canonical scriptures" approved by Pope Boniface I back in 397. "...[B]esides the Canonical Scriptures," write the council fathers, "nothing can be read in church under the name divine Scripture."
1442	The Ecumenical Council of Florence re-affirms the traditional list of 74 inspired biblical books.
1536	Martin Luther, in his German translation of the Bible, removes four New Testament books (namely Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation) from their normally accepted place. He places them together at the end of his New Testament, according them a status as "less than canonical." He also moves the seven Old Testament books mentioned above (the so-called deuterocanonicals, or "apocrypha") to an appendix.
1546	The Council of Trent, the Church's response to the teachings of the Protestant Reformers, solemnly defines and makes dogmatic the Catholic canon of Scripture, removing any doubt about the possibility of changing the canon.